Jhum Cultivation in Arunachal Pradesh, Northeast India: A Review
Main Article Content
Abstract
Jhum cultivation, or shifting and swidden cultivation, is one of the oldest forms of traditional agriculture used by the indigenous peoples of Northeast India. In Arunachal Pradesh, land-use practices are strongly influenced by the region's mountainous landscape, high rainfall, vast forest areas and the variety of tribal cultures, and as a result jhum still holds ecological, agricultural, economic and socio-cultural importance. The method has on many occasions been linked to deforestation, soil erosion, nutrient depletion, a loss of soil organic carbon, changes in vegetation and a decline in productivity, especially in cases where the pressure of land use leads to shorter traditional fallow periods. Nevertheless, seeing jhum only as an environmentally harmful practice fails to take into account some of the key features of the traditional system. Important positive aspects include mixed cropping, the preservation of crop landraces, a low reliance on synthetic agrochemicals, household food production, the use of locally adapted crops, ecological recovery brought about by the fallow period, and the retention of traditional ecological knowledge. Research carried out in Arunachal Pradesh has demonstrated a high level of crop diversity in jhum systems and that soil characteristics which deteriorate during cultivation can partly recover during the fallow phase. This review carefully looks at the ecological effects, the agrobiodiversity aspects, and the ways towards sustainable hill agriculture connected with jhum cultivation in Arunachal Pradesh and in Northeast India. By means of a narrative integrative review we have brought together published research and pertinent literature on soil properties, biodiversity, crop diversity, traditional ecological knowledge, livelihood functions and sustainability. The evidence indicates that the main ecological issue is not merely the fact that jhum exists, but rather the intensification resulting from shorter fallow cycles, repeated burning and the cultivation of steep slopes. Instead of giving up jhum altogether, a comprehensive strategy that integrates indigenous knowledge with ecologically suitable fallows, agroforestry, soil and water conservation, better fallow management, and appropriate livelihood diversification could provide a more practical path to sustainable hill agriculture in Arunachal Pradesh.
References
Arunachalam, A., & Pandey, H. N. (2003). Ecosystem restoration of jhum fallows in Northeast India: Microbial C and N along altitudinal and successional gradients. Restoration Ecology, 11(2), 168–173. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1526-100X.2003.00013.x
Bhagawati, K., Bhagawati, G., Das, R., Bhagawati, R., & Ngachanngachan, S. V. (2015). The structure of jhum (traditional shifting cultivation system): Prospect or threat to climate. International Letters of Natural Sciences, 46, 16–30. https://doi.org/10.18052/www.scipress.com/ILNS.46.16
Bharadwaj, K., Singh, K. N., Singh, A. K., Choudhury, B. U., & Hazarika, B. N. (2024). Soil fertility improvement through agroforestry with nitrogen-fixing tree species in jhum fallows of Northeast India. International Journal of Environment and Climate Change, 14(23), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijecc/2024/v14i23998
Bhardwaj, R. (2024). Reevaluating shifting cultivation in Northeast India: Balancing traditional practices, sustainability, and development. Asian Journal of Research in Agriculture and Forestry, 10(4), 514–523. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajraf/2024/v10i4354
Gogoi, A., Sahoo, U. K., & Saikia, H. (2020). Vegetation and ecosystem carbon recovery following shifting cultivation in Mizoram-Manipur-Kachin rainforest eco-region, Southern Asia. Ecological Processes, 9, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13717-020-00225-w
Gurung, D. B., & Phuntso, T. (2025). Community-managed agroforestry systems and their contribution to reducing jhum fallow shortening in Arunachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 95, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.5958/2249-7137.2025.00055.4
Hazarika, A., Nath, A. J., Raju, D., Saikia, M., Bhatt, B. P., & Das, A. K. (2024). Carbon stock and economic returns of multi-strata agroforestry versus traditional jhum in Assam–Arunachal border landscapes. Natural Farming, 1(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.60692/nf1sy-s9x40
Jeengaph, L. (2023). Traditional ecological knowledge in jhum cultivation: Intergenerational transmission and agrobiodiversity conservation in Northeast India. Spectrum of Biosciences, 10(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.54290/spect/2023.v10.1.0005
Kalidas-Singh, S., Bora, I. P., Thakuria, D., Changkija, S., Puyam, A., & Khwairakpam, L. (2021). The comparative soil fertility in traditional and alder-based shifting cultivation of varied fallow lengths in the eastern Indian Himalayas. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380768.2021.2009741
Kalita, H. C., Singha, D., Baruah, K. K., Nath, A. J., & Das, A. K. (2023). Soil organic carbon dynamics under shifting cultivation in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh border districts: A chronosequence analysis. International Journal of Environment and Climate Change, 13(10), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijecc/2023/v13i102861
Kamei, B. (2025). Fallow threshold analysis and long-term land-cover change in jhum-dependent districts of Nagaland: Implications for sustainable hill agriculture policy. Prabandhan: Indian Journal of Management, 1(2), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.65525/prabandhan.v1i2.7
Khan, R., Tasung, A., Makdoh, B., Bhagawati, K., Suryawanshi, A., Alone, R. A., Angami, T., et al. (2024). Dynamics of soil properties under jhum cultivation: A review. International Journal of Environment and Climate Change, 14(11), 378–391. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijecc/2024/v14i114553
Kumar, J., Kalita, H., Rekhung, W., Alone, R. A., Angami, T., Jini, D., Makdoh, B., Touthang, L., Khatri, N., Singh, A., & Sinha, N. K. (2024). Dynamics of soil organic carbon of jhum agriculture land-use system in the heterogeneous hills of Arunachal Pradesh, India. https://doi.org/10.60692/6zf9r-v0x04
Leindah, N. (2013). Soil fertility status in relation to fallow cycles and land-use practices in shifting cultivated areas of Chandel district, Manipur, India. IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science, 4(4), 01–09. https://doi.org/10.9790/2380-0440109
Lungmuana, Singh, S. B., Vanthawmliana, Saha, S., Dutta, S. K., Rambuatsaiha, Singh, A. R., & Boopathi, T. (2017). Impact of secondary forest fallow period on soil microbial biomass carbon and enzyme activity dynamics under shifting cultivation in the North Eastern Hill region, India. Catena, 156, 10–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2017.03.017
Lungmuana, Choudhury, B. U., Saha, S., Singh, S. B., Das, A., Buragohain, J., Dayal, V., Singh, A. R., Boopathi, T., & Dutta, S. K. (2018). Impact of post-burn jhum agriculture on soil carbon pools in the north-eastern Himalayan region of India. Soil Research, 56(6), 615–622. https://doi.org/10.1071/SR18031
Mandal, R. K., & Lonchung, K. (2023). A review of environmental issues due to shifting cultivation in Arunachal Pradesh, India. Journal of Experimental Agriculture International, 45(11), 83–91. https://doi.org/10.9734/jeai/2023/v45i112238
Modak, K., Guru, N., Mishra, G., & Sharma, B. (2024). Role of traditional farming practices of Northeast India in soil and water conservation and sustainable nutrient management. In Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5223-2_10
Mylliemngap, W. (2023). Agrobiodiversity and natural resource management in traditional agricultural systems of Northeast India (pp. 199–224). https://doi.org/10.33002/mount.a/11
Nath, P. C., Nath, A. J., Reang, D., Lal, R., & Das, A. K. (2021). Tree diversity, soil organic carbon lability and ecosystem carbon storage under a fallow age chronosequence in Northeast India. Ecological Indicators, 10, 100122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indic.2021.100122
Nath, P. C., Nath, A. J., & Das, A. K. (2023). Vegetation and recalcitrant soil carbon recovery along an age chronosequence of jhum fallows in North East India. In Carbon Management and Ecosystem Services (pp. 235–244). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3303-7_13
Natori, Y., Sethi, P., Trakansuphakon, P., & Edake, S. (2023). Traditional regenerative agriculture as a sustainable landscape approach: Lessons from India and Thailand (pp. 117–135). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1292-6_7
Pandey, D. K., Momin, K. C., Dubey, S. K., & Adhiguru, P. (2022). Biodiversity in agricultural and food systems of jhum landscape in the West Garo Hills, North-eastern India. Food Security, 14(3), 791–804. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-021-01251-y
Pathak, K., Nath, A. J., Sileshi, G. W., Lal, R., & Das, A. K. (2023). Dynamics of soil organic carbon of jhum agriculture land-use system in the heterogeneous hills of Arunachal Pradesh, India. Scientific Reports. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-38421-1
Pattanaaik, S. K., Hazarika, B. N., Pandey, A. K., & Debnath, P. (2016). Towards settled cultivation from traditional jhum: A case study in Arunachal Pradesh, India. Indian Journal of Agricultural Research, 50(6), 535–541. https://doi.org/10.18805/IJARE.V0IOF.4574
Payum, T., Tayeng, K., Mili, R., & Langkam, M. (2021). Crop diversity in jhum cultivation: A case study of Upper Siang District of Arunachal Pradesh, India. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 6(2), 234–239. https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2021.0602016
Prakash, N. (2018). Shifting cultivation in North East India: Social dimension, cross-cultural reflection and strategies for improvement. The Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 88(6). https://doi.org/10.56093/ijas.v88i6.80497
Roy, S., & Singh, M. (2024). Vegetation recovery trajectories and forest fragmentation in shifting cultivation landscapes of Arunachal Pradesh. International Journal of Innovative Science and Modern Engineering, 5, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.54646/ijism.2024.05
Saha, R., Chaudhary, R. S., & Jayaraman, S. (2024). Soil erosion and nutrient losses under jhum on steep slopes in Northeast India: Quantification and conservation implications. Natural Farming, 1(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.60692/xh6t2-ptd30
Saikanth, D. R. K., Naik, S. K., Bhattacharyya, R., Kumar, N., Singh, A. K., & Kumar, P. (2023). Household food security and crop diversity under traditional jhum in Nagaland and Manipur: A cross-sectional survey. International Journal of Environment and Climate Change, 13(8), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijecc/2023/v13i82138
Sarkar, D., Meitei, Ch. B., Baishya, L. K., Das, A., Ghosh, S., Chongloi, K. L., & Rajkhowa, D. J. (2015). Potential of fallow chronosequence in shifting cultivation to conserve soil organic carbon in northeast India. Catena, 135, 321–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2015.08.012
Seidler, R., Gavai, P., & Bawa, K. S. (2026). Polyculture crop diversity in jhum fields of Northeast India: Current extent, conservation value, and response to intensification. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 9, 1639264. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2025.1639264
Shimrah, T., Rao, K. S., & Saxena, K. G. (2015). The shifting agricultural system (jhum) and strategies for sustainable agroecosystems in Northeast India. Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems, 39(10), 1154–1171. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683565.2015.1089350
Swami, S. (2018). Shifting cultivation: A tribal way of life in Northeast India and alternative approaches for increasing productivity. The Pharma Innovation Journal, 7(3), 380–385.
Tage, B. J. G. (2024). Traditional land and agriculture management techniques in Siku and Sibia Watershed, East Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh. International Journal of Science and Research, 13(3). https://doi.org/10.21275/sr24304223235
Tangjang, S. (2009). Traditional slash-and-burn agriculture as a historic land use practice: A case study from the ethnic Noctes in Arunachal Pradesh, India. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 5(5), 648–651.
Thachunglura, V., Lalbiakmawia, B., Zothanzama, J., & Lalzarzovi, S. T. (2023). Study of soil organic carbon on current jhum and jhum fallows from Rawpuichhip, Mamit District. Scientific Visualization, 15(3). https://doi.org/10.33493/scivis.23.03.02
Tomar, J. M. S., Das, A., Puni, L., Chaturvedi, O. P., & Munda, G. C. (2012). Shifting cultivation in the northeastern region of India—Status and strategies for sustainable development. Indian Forester, 138(1), 52–62. https://doi.org/10.36808/if/2012/v138i1/4562
Tripathi, R. S., Prabhu, S. D., Pandey, H. N., & Barik, S. K. (2015). Vegetation change during recovery of shifting cultivation (jhum) fallows in a subtropical evergreen forest ecosystem of North-Eastern India. International Journal of Plant and Environment, 1(1), 17–30. https://doi.org/10.18811/IJPEN.V1I1.7111
Wangpan, T., & Tangjang, S. (2015). Significance of mixed-cropping in jhum-based traditional agroforestry in Tirap and Longding District of Arunachal Pradesh, India. Journal of Bioresources, 2(2), 62–73.
Wonglangka, W., Tzudir, R., Nimasow, G., Pampam, K. M., Nimasow, O. D., Saikia, P., & Tamang, B. (2025). Farmer-designed versus externally designed agroforestry: Biodiversity outcomes and TEK integration in transitioning jhum systems of Northeast India. Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems, 49, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683565.2025.2610778
Yakang, H., & Nimasow, O. D. (2022). A comparative study on vegetation cover, soil properties, and status of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in jhum fallow and natural forest in Arunachal Pradesh. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8372842
